I) Introduction: Composition History

• Author: Although written in part as first-person narratives by a certain "Daniel," the real author is anonymous. Another much earlier “Daniel” is mentioned, along with Noah and Job, as a wise sage in Ezek 14:14-20; 28:3.
• Date: Although the events purportedly take place during the Babylonian Exile (6th cent. BC), the stories actually stem from the 3rd and early 2nd cent. BC, and the book was not compiled until ca. 167-164 BC. 
• Language: The various stories in this book are written in three different languages: Hebrew (1:1—2:4a); Aramaic (2:4b—7:28); and Greek (13—14); scholars have various theories to explain this phenomenon.
• Structure & Genre: The book has three main parts, each from different eras and of distinct literary genres:
  • Chapters 1-6, from the 3rd cent., contain stories about the life and struggles of Daniel and his companions during the Babylonian exile; here Daniel is the interpreter of the dreams of various Babylonian kings.
  • Chapters 7-12, from the early 2nd cent., is a collection of four apocalyptic visions; here Daniel himself is the visionary, but he needs help from an angelic mediator to interpret and understand his own dreams.
  • Chapters 13-14 are not found in the Hebrew Bible, but are in the Septuagint (ancient Greek Bible; LXX); they consist of two separate stories involving Daniel that are novelistic, not historical.

II) Contents:

III) An Overview of the Great Empires of the Ancient Middle East

• Egyptians - Imperial overlords of Palestine and many surrounding territories for most of 3^rd and 2^nd millennia BC.
  • [United Kingdom of Israel] - the "Golden Age" of Ancient Israel, when the twelve tribes are independent and united under Kings Saul, David, and Solomon (ca. 1030-930 BC); but after Solomon's death the kingdom divides.
• Assyrians - King Sennacherib destroys the northern Kingdom of Israel & its capital Samaria; the ten northern tribes of Israelites are exiled and scattered throughout the Assyrian Empire (721 - 600's BC).
• Neo-BABYLONIANS - King Nebuchadnezzar captures the southern Kingdom of Judah, destroys the Temple and city of Jerusalem; many Jews taken captive to Babylon for several generations, in what is called the "Babylonian Exile" (587 - 539 BC).
• MEDES - a smaller kingdom which never directly ruled Israel, but helped others defeat the Assyrians and Babylonians; it was then incorporated into the Persian empire, becoming its largest province (by 550 BC).
• PERSIANS - King Cyrus conquers the Babylonian empire, allows the Jews to return to Judea and rebuild the temple; the Persians control Judea through approved local leaders (539 - 330's BC).
• GREEKS - After Alexander the Great becomes King of Macedonia (332 BC), his armies conquer the East (almost the whole Persian empire), but he dies very young (323 BC). His Hellenistic empire is then divided between four generals, who battle each other in the "Wars of the Diadochi." Eventually, two long-reigning dynasties rule in the East (see my page on Hellenistic Era Rulers):
  • Ptolemies - Greek rulers from Egypt who also control Palestine at first (ca. 323 - 198 BC);
  • Seleucids - Greek rulers from Syria who take over control of Palestine later (198 - 141 BC); the tenth in this dynasty (if starting from Alexander) is:
  • Antiochus IV Epiphanes, who desecrates the Jerusalem Temple by placing statues in it (167 BC), thereby sparking the "Maccabean Revolt"; the Jews soon recapture and rededicate the Temple (164 BC).
• [Maccabean/Hasmonean Dynasty] - the Jews briefly regain full independence (141 - 63 BC).
• Romans - General Pompey leads the Roman take-over of Israel in 63 BC (see my page on Roman Era Rulers).
• [See also my summary page on Ancient Israelite and Jewish History]

IV) Daniel's Apocalyptic Visions as related to Ancient Jewish History

Remember: Although their setting is during the Babylonian Exile (6^th cent. BC), the stories actually stem from the 3^rd and early 2^nd centuries BC, and the whole book was compiled ca. 167-164 BC.

V) Babylonian, Mede and Persian Rulers

VI) The Seleucid and Ptolemaic Dynasties (Greek)

332-323: King Alexander the Great leads the Greek armies invading the East, but he dies of a fever at age 33.

323-321: General Perdiccas is appointed regent over the whole empire, but is soon assassinated.

321-281: The Wars of the Diadochi: Alexander's generals and their successors (Ptolemy, Antigonus, Cassander, Lysimachus, Antiochus, Seleucus, Laomedon, etc.) divide the empire into four parts, but fight each other for forty years to gain control of more territory; by 281 the two main rulers controlling the East are Seleucus & Ptolemy.

At first Palestine was controlled by the Ptolemies (320-198), but later by the Seleucids (198-141).

[For more detail, see also my webpage on the Hellenistic Era Rulers.]

VII) The Hasmonean Family (Main Leaders by Generations)

• Mattathias (d. 166)
• Judas Maccabeus (d. 160); Jonathan (160-42); Simon (142-134)
• John Hyrcanus I (134-104)
• Judas Aristobulus I (104-103); Alexander Janneus (103-76); wife Salome Alexander (76-67)
• Aristobulus II (67-63, d. 49); Hyrcanus II (63-40; d. 30)

VIII) Bibliography: Recommended Readings

• Corrine L. Carvalho. Ezekiel, Daniel. New Collegeville Bible Commentary. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 2012.
• Toni Craven. Ezekiel, Daniel. Collegeville Bible Commentary, 16. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1986.
• Louis Francis Hartman and Alexander A. Di Lella. The Book of Daniel. Yale Anchor Bible Commentaries. Yale University Press, 1978.