Introduction:

• An Introduction to the Deutero-Pauline Letters
• Colossians and Ephesians within the NT Canon
• Epistolary Structure of Colossians and Ephesians
• Literary and Historical Overview of Colossians
• Literary and Historical Overview of Ephesians
• NAB Introduction and Full Text of Colossians (from USCCB)
• NAB Introduction and Full Text of Ephesians (from USCCB)
• Pauline Chronology: Phase III
• Pauline Geography: Asia Minor
   
   

Literary and Historical Considerations

Authorship and Authenticity

• Colossians and Ephesians are very similar to each other in many ways, but both are significantly different from the earlier "undisputed" letters of Paul; yet biblical scholars disagree as to how these differences can best be explained.
  • Some scholars say the differences are the result of shifts in Paul's thinking as he got older; thus, both letters must have been written late in Paul's life, just before his death (see Col 4:3-4, 10, 18; Eph 3:1; 4:1).
  • Other scholars say the differences are better explained by considering the letters to be pseudepigraphic; some of his followers wrote after his death to carry on his teachings, applying and adapting them to changing circumstances.
  • The authorship of Colossians is disputed about 50/50 (half of all scholars think it is authentic; the other half think it is pseudepigraphic); on the other hand, Ephesians is almost certainly pseudepigraphic (80/20 divide among scholars).
• When and from where were these letters written?
  • If they are authentic: in the early 60's, from Caesarea or Rome, while Paul was imprisoned (Phase IV of Paul's life)
    
  • If they are pseudepigraphic: in the 80's or 90's, probably from Asia Minor (maybe from Ephesus itself?)
  • In either case, the author(s) know(s) some people in these churches, and they know several of the authors' associates, indicating lots of travel back and forth between the various Pauline communities in Asia Minor.
• Ephesians was almost certainly written later than Colossians, and is literarily dependent upon it.
  • It is placed earlier in the NT in most Bibles today simply because it is longer (Eph has 6 chapters; Col only 4 chapters).
  • In some early manuscripts of the NT, however, Ephesians is first in the group of Paul's letters, thus functioning like a "cover letter" or introduction to the Pauline corpus.

Historical and Geographical Context

• Colossae:
  • City in Asia Minor, about 120 miles east of Ephesus (a major Pauline center; although not mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles)
  • Location of a gentile Christian church, founded by Paul's associate Epaphras (see Col 1:7-8)
  • Paul himself has never been in Colossae; so most of the believers have not met him yet! (see 2:1; 4:12-13)
  • Other Pauline associates send greetings in Col 4:7-17 (implying that the Colossians know them): Tychicus, Onesimus, Aristarchus, Mark (cousin of Barnabas), Jesus a.k.a. Justus, Epaphras, Luke (beloved physician) and Demas.
  • The author also sends greetings to "brothers in Laodicea" (a sister church in a neighboring town) and "to Nympha and the church in her house" (4:15-16)
    
• Ephesus:
  • Largest city and political capital of Asia Minor; location of a large temple dedicated to the Greek goddess Artemis.
  • Paul and his associates spend several years in Ephesus (see Acts 18:19-21; 19:1-40; 20:16-38; 1 Cor 15:32; 16:8-9).
  • Other early Christian preachers also passed through Ephesus, such as Priscilla and Aquila (Acts 18:18-26) and Apollos (Acts 18:24-26)
  • The Church in Ephesus continued to grow and became a major center of Pauline Christianity after Paul's own death (cf. 1 Tim 1:3; 2 Tim 1:18; 4:12; cf. Rev. 1:11; 2:1-7)
  • Note: The words "in Ephesus" are missing from Eph 1:1 in many early biblical manuscripts.
    • Originally, verse one probably just read, "To the saints who are faithful in Christ Jesus"
    • This again indicates that Eph may have been composed as a summary or an introduction to Pauline thought.

Outlines of the Letters to the Colossians and to the Ephesians:
 

Major Themes:

Differences between Colossians/Ephesians and Paul’s Early Letters:

• Literary Style:
  • Colossians and Ephesians both have much longer, more complex sentences than Paul's earlier letters.
  • Both contain expressions and concepts not found in Paul's earlier letters:
    • "Fullness of God" (Col 1:19; 2:9; Eph 1:23; 3:19)
    • "Mystery of the Gospel" (Col 1:26-27; 2:2; Eph 3:9; 6:19)
• Theological Differences:

Opponents of the Author and Teachings Opposed in Colossians:

• No identifiable opposing teachers or groups are named; so the "opponents" of the author remain somewhat generic.
  • They are not just "Judaizers" (Jewish-Christians who required circumcision of Gentile converts), as in Paul's earlier letters.
• Author opposes requiring Christians to follow various spiritual teachings and ritual practices
  • Strange teachings: "See to it that no one takes you captive through philosophy and empty deceit, according to human tradition, according to the elemental spirits of the universe, and not according to Christ." (2:8)
  • Religious asceticism and rituals (see 2:16-18)
• Purpose of Colossians: to emphasize that Christ is enough; we don't need anyone else.
  • Some people apparently said Christ was not enough for salvation; Jesus did not free us from cosmic powers or give us wisdom and access to God.
  • The author of Colossians asserts that Jesus has done this! Christ is all we need!

Literary and Theological Highlights of Colossians:

• Christological Hymn (1:15-20):
  
  • Probably a pre-Pauline early Christian "hymn" that was used in liturgical worship
    
  • Evidences "High Christology": stresses Jesus' full divinity (similar to Phil 1:6-10 and John 1:1-3)
    
• Salvation of the Gentiles, through the Gospel preached by Paul
  • Remain faithful to the tradition you received through the gospel (1:21-23)
    
• Significance of Paul's Sufferings:
  • "I am now rejoicing in my sufferings for your sake, and in my flesh I am completing what is lacking in Christ’s afflictions for the sake of his body, that is, the church." (1:24)
    
  • Does not imply that Jesus crucifixion was inadequate, or that Paul needed to do more.
    
• Believers must truly live "in Christ," with "Christ in you"
  
  • 3:1-4: Intro: new life in Christ
  • 3:5-11: vice list (actions to avoid)
  • 3:12-17: virtue list (not just moral actions, but full religious life)
  • 3:18—4:1: Household Codes (click for a full page of analysis)
    
• Concluding Admonitions (4:2-6)

Literary Dependence of Ephesians on Colossians:

• Differences between Eph and Col:
  
  • Ephesians is longer and better organized, but somewhat more generic than Colossians.
    
    • No specific opponents or false teachings are identifiable in Eph, in contrast to the greater detail of Col.
    • Theological ideas are more developed and language is even more "Christianized" in Eph than in Col.
  • Colossians is more personal and specific (thus possibly authentically by Paul); while Ephesians is much more formal and generic (thus more likely pseudepigraphic)
    • There are no greetings to individuals in the community at the end of Eph 6; this is very surprising, since Paul lived in Ephesus for over 3 years!
    • Several Pauline associates (Tychicus, Onesimus, Aristarchus, Mark, Jesus/Justus, Epaphras) are mentioned at the end of Colossians (4:7-9), but only one, Tychicus, is mentioned as Paul's envoy in Eph 6:21-22.
• Similarities between Eph and Col (whereas both are different from Paul's earlier letters; see the table above)
  
  • Christology: Focus is on the divine, exalted, cosmic Christ
  • Soteriology: God's mysterious plan, now revealed, is to save the whole world
  • Ecclesiology: Church is one worldwide entity; Christ is the head of the body/church
  • Eschatology: Christ is already now seated at God's right hand (spatial)
  • Household Codes: Focus on community relations; longer and more "Christianized" in Eph
• Result/Implication: Most scholars think Colossians was the literary "source" and Ephesians was a later "expansion"; consider the following similarities in the themes and structures of both letters.
  

Literary and Theological Highlights of Ephesians:

• Thesis / Blessing Prayer (1:15-21):
  • first of many "quotable quotes" in Ephesians
    
• Theological Section: "Action of Christ" (2:1—3:21)
  
  • Unity of Jews and Gentiles in the Church (2:11-22)
  • Mystery of the Church: the Body of Christ, with Christ as the head (3:1-13)
  • Inspiring concluding prayer (3:14-21)
    
• Ethical Section: "Living in Christ" (4:1—6:20)
  
  • "…lead a life worthy of the calling to which you have been called" (4:1)
    
  • Unity of the Church: "one body, one spirit, one hope, one Lord, one faith, one baptism, one God and Father of all…" (4:2-16)
  • Lists of Vices and Virtues (4:17-32)
    
  • "Be imitators of God, as beloved children, and live in love, as Christ loved us and gave himself up for us, a fragrant offering and sacrifice to God." (5:1-2)
    
  • More Vices and Virtues: "live as children of the light" (5:3-20)
    
  • Relationships within Christian "households" (5:21—6:9)
• Recapitulation: Christianizing Roman Military Imagery (6:10-17)
  
  • Functions as a summary for the whole Epistle; "Be strong in the Lord"
  • Spiritualizes soldier's gear: whole armor, belt=truth, breastplate=righteousness, shoes=preaching, shield=faith, helmet=salvation, sword=Spirit=word of God
    
  • Note: A sword is the symbol typically associated with Paul in religious art; this is not because he himself was ever a soldier, but due to Eph 6:17

The Household Codes in Colossians and Ephesians:

This section has been moved to its own page. Please click here for analysis of the Household Codes.

Questions for Review and Discussion:

Colossians:

1. Who were the "Colossians"? What do we know about the early Christian community in Colossae (and individuals in the church) to whom this letter is written?
2. Why do many scholars believe that the Letter to the Colossians was not written by Paul himself, but by one of his disciples after his death?
3. Are there any reasons to believe that Paul did write it near the end of his life? Which arguments do you find the most convincing?
4. As you read the Letter to the Colossians, which verses or passages most surprised you, disturbed you, or inspired you? Why?
5. What main issues, problems, and/or questions are addressed in this letter?
6. How are the theological explanations, ethical admonitions, and/or practical instructions of the Letter to the Colossians still applicable for us today?

Ephesians:

1. Where is Ephesus? Why is this city important in the early history of Christianity? What do we know about the Christians who lived there?
2. Why do most scholars believe that the Letter to the Ephesians was almost certainly not written by Paul himself, but by one of his disciples late in the first century?
3. As you read the Letter to the Ephesians, which verses or passages most surprised you, disturbed you, or inspired you? Why? Make a list of your own favorite "quotable quotes."

Colossians & Ephesians together:

1. What are the most striking similarities between Ephesians and Colossians, both in content and in literary structure?
2. What are some of the most significant theological differences between Colossians and Ephesians, on the one hand, and the undisputed letters of Paul, on the other hand?
3. How is the concept of the "Church" in Colossians and Ephesians significantly different from what Paul calls the "church" or "churches" in the undisputed letters?
4. Compare the two Household Codes of Col 3:18—4:1 and Eph 5:21—6:9. In what ways does the version in Ephesians modify and expand the version of Colossians? Why?

For Further Reading and Study:  

• Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament. New York: Doubleday, 1997. - "Letter to the Colossians" (pp. 599-619), "Epistle (Letter) to the Ephesians" (620-637)
   
• MacDonald, Margaret Y. Colossians and Ephesians. Sacra Pagina 17. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical. Press, 2000.
• Schnackenburg, Rudolf. The Epistle to the Ephesians. Edinburgh: Clark, 1991.
• Lincoln, Andrew T. Ephesians. Word Biblical Commentary. Dallas: Word, 1990. 
• Lohse, Eduard. Colossians and Philemon: A Commentary on the Epistles to the Colossians and to Philemon. Hermeneia Commentary. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971.