An Overview of Christian History compiled by Felix Just, S.J., Ph.D. Highlights from and Supplements to People of God: The History of Catholic Christianity by Anthony E. Gilles (St. Anthony Messenger Press, 2000)

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The Main Stages of Christian History:

• [Pre-Christian Foundations: Old Testament, Israel, Jews; about 2000 years BC]
• Early Period:
  • Apostolic Period (Jesus & the Apostles; New Testament; 1st century AD)
  • Sub-apostolic Period (Expansion of Xnty; Persecutions by Rome; 2nd to 3rd cent.)
  • Patristic Period (Constantinian Conversion; Ecumenical Councils; 4th to 7th cent.)
• Middle Ages:
  • Early Middle Ages (Carolingian & Gregorian Reforms; Great Schism; 8th to 11th cent.)
  • High Middle Ages (Papacy; Scholasticism; Mendicant Orders; Crusades; 12th to 13th cent.)
  • Late Middle Ages (Avignon Papacy; Western Schism; Renaissance; 14th to 15th cent.)
• Modern Era:
  • Reformation Era (Protestant Reformers; Catholic Counter-Reformation; 16th to 17th cent.)
  • Revolutionary Era (Revolutions & Anti-Modern Reactions; 18th to mid-20th cent.)
  • Vatican II Era (from 1960's to today)

Gilles' Preface:

• History = His-Story: combines both objective reality (facts) and subjective interpretation (perspective)
• Gilles' Main Interest: the complex, changing relationship between the Church and the World
• Can't Do Everything: some internal issues covered (doctrine, movements, leaders), but many others neglected (liturgy, spirituality, etc.)
• Be Fair in Critique: there is both good and bad in our world; there is both positive and negative within the Church

Ch. 1 - Introducing the Early Church (AD 90's - 380's)

• The Early Church:
  • What is "Church"? - ekklesia = local "assembly" of believers and world-wide body (one "Body of Christ")
  • Gradual Growth: not as rapid as depicted in Acts, but slow steady expansion over decades & centuries
  • Church's Self-Identity: close-knit communities, follow teachings of their leaders, share possessions for the needy
  • Community Worship: gather Sunday evenings to pray, read scriptures, & break bread: "Eucharist" (lit. "thanksgiving")
  • Worship Spaces grow & specialize over time: 1) private homes; 2) "house-churches"; 3) larger "basilicas"
• Church Leaders:
• First generations: more itinerant apostles, prophets, evangelists, teachers
• Later generations: more local bishops (episkopoi, lit. "overseer, supervisor"), elders (presbyteroi), ministers (diakonoi)
• Bishops of larger cities extend authority to surrounding areas (esp. Bishop of Rome, later known as "Papa" or "Pope")
• Outsiders' Views of Christians:
  • Negative: atheists (don't worship Roman gods), cannibals (eat Jesus' flesh & blood), anti-social (secret night-time gatherings)
  • Positive: admired for strong ethics (no promiscuity, divorce, abortion, infanticide) & social action (care of poor, sick, widows)
• Roman Persecutions of Early Christians:
  • real & traumatic, but not as massive as Hollywood movies portray; not all Christians were crucified, burned, or fed to the lions!
    • mostly local, sporadic, small-scale: targeted individuals, esp. leaders; "The blood of the martyrs is seed for the Church"
    • "persecution" was not always execution; could be harassment, flogging, social ostracism, forced exile, etc.
  • worst first-century persecution under Emperor Nero (64AD):
  • Nero burns Rome, blames the Christians; has some burned or crucified, possibly including apostles Peter & Paul
  • yet this episode was fairly short, limited mostly to the city of Rome, hardly affected Christians elsewhere in the empire
  • massive empire-wide persecutions only in two short periods in the mid- to late third century
    • Emperor Decius (ca. 250) - Christians required to get a "libelus," certifying they had offered sacrifice to the Emperor
    • Emperor Diocletian (ca. 300) - targeted Church leaders, buildings, books; many arrests & executions
• Emperor CONSTANTINE (306-337):
  • Battle of Milvian Bridge (312): "in hoc signo vinces"; takes over as sole emperor in West (later also in East)
  • Constantine's Conversion (312): considers himself Christian, although he's not baptized until just before his death
  • Edict of Milan (313): toleration of all religions, incl. Christianity, ends persecutions (but Xnty not the "state religion" until 380)
• Imperial Support of Christianity:
  • Production of Bibles & construction of basilicas (large church buildings), esp. in Rome, Jerusalem & Constantinople
• Roman structures adopted by Church: professional "clergy" (clerical dress & titles); legal "courts"; administrative "dioceses"
• Number of Xns grows rapidly: advantageous to join the Emperor's new religion! Xn instruction for new "catechumens"
• Council of Nicea (325): assembles bishops world-wide to settle theological disputes (esp. on Jesus' divinity)
• Main Christian Centers: Jerusalem (Israel), Antioch (Syria), Alexandria (Egypt), Rome (capital), Constantinople (new capital)
• 380: Emperor Theodosius I declares Christianity the one & only official religion of the entire Roman Empire

Ch. 2 - The Early Church Defines Orthodox Christianity (AD 313 - 451)

• Early Christian Heresies:
  • Gk. haeresis = "sect"; groups of Christians whose beliefs were eventually rejected by the majority of other Christians
  • main heresies of the 2nd & 3rd Centuries: Adoptionists, Gnostics, Docetists
  • main heresies of the 4th & 5th Centuries, opposed by the first four Ecumenical Councils:
    • Arians - Jesus is divine, but somehow "less" than the Father; slogan: "There was a time when he was not."
    • Nestorians - Mary shouldn't be called "Mother of God," since she's mother only of the human side of Jesus
    • Monophysites - Jesus really has only one nature, a divine nature, which supplanted his human nature
• First Four Ecumenical Councils:
  • 325: Nicea - influenced by Athanasius of Alexandria; opposed Arians; adopted the "Nicene Creed"
  • 381: Constantinople - again opposed Arians; expanded the Creed, esp. more about the Holy Spirit
  • 431: Ephesus - opposed the Nestorians
  • 451: Chalcedon - opposed the Monophysites
• Trinitarian Faith & Creeds:
  • Expressed in the Nicene & Constantinopolitan Creeds, still accepted and recited in most Christian Churches today.
  • Trinity = God is one divine "nature" but three divine "persons" (Father, Son, Spirit)
  • Jesus is "of the same nature" (homo-ousios) as the Father, not just "of similar nature" (homoi-ousios) as the Father (as Arians claimed)
  • Mary is rightly called the "Mother of God" (Gk. theotokos; not just mother of the human part of Jesus, as Nestorians claimed)
  • Jesus is both fully human and fully divine (not half/half, nor having only a divine nature, as Monophysites claimed)

Ch. 3 - The Fall of Rome and the Rise of the Western Church (AD 370's - 604)

• Division of Roman Empire into Eastern & Western Halves (see Gilles, p. 9 - map, and pp. 210-213 - timeline):
  • 286: empire divided by Emperor Diocletian into E & W halves, each with its own "Augustus" (#1) and "Caesar" (#2)
    • 324: empire reunited after Constantine defeats Licinius to become the sole ruler
  • 337: empire divided again after Constantine's death among several of his sons
    • 350: empire reunited under Constantius II, followed by Julian the Apostate, etc.
  • 364: empire divided again: West: Valentinian I & II; East: Valens & Theodosius I
    • 392: empire reunited under Theodosius I, but only for three years!
  • 395: empire divided yet again: West: Emperor Honorius, then Valentinian III; East: Theodosian Dynasty remains strong
• The Fall of the Western Roman Empire (5th Century):
  • 410: Visigoths led by Alaric sack Rome; various "barbarian" or "Germanic" tribes invade Western empire from many sides
  • 452: Pope Leo the Great saves Rome from attack by Attila the Hun; Western Roman "emperors" mostly puppets by now
  • 476: last Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, deposed by Germanic chief Odoacer, who becomes "King of Italy"
    
  • 489-493: Ostrogoths under Theoderic the Great conquer Italy; other parts of West controlled by Visigoths, Lombards, Franks, etc.
• Church/State Relationships in the East and West:
  • East: close church-state cooperation overall, ever since Emperor Constantine built Constantinople as new imperial capital
    • emperors call ecumenical councils, approve appointment of bishops, strongly influence internal church issues
    • four main Christian Patriarchates in East: Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, Constantinople
  • West: as the empire/emperors get weaker, the church/bishops provide stability and unity to society (esp. Pope Leo, 440-461)
    • after the fall of Rome, the Pope (Bishop of Rome, Patriarch of the West) becomes overarching leader of Western culture
    • Church remains "Roman" (foundational culture), but also becomes more "Catholic" (universal, adapts to new barbarian cultures)

Ch. 4 - Concluding the Age of the Church Fathers (AD 95 - 636)

• "Church Fathers" = the most influential theologians & writers of the Church from about the 2nd to 7th centuries:
  
  • a.k.a. "Patristics" < pater = "father" (both Greek & Latin), mostly bishops; their writings fill hundreds of thick volumes.
  • Four great Eastern/Greek Church Fathers: Athanasius of Alexandria, Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus, John Chrysostom.
  • Four great Western/Latin Church Fathers: Ambrose of Milan, Augustine of Hippo, Jerome of Jerusalem, Gregory the Great.
  • Some women also very important (Augustine's mother Monica, Benedict's sister Scholastica), but unfortunately wrote little or nothing.
    
• Theological Influence of Augustine (born 354; bishop of Hippo, North Africa, 395-430 - for 35 years!)
  
  • vs. Donatists, on the validity of sacraments administered by sinful ministers, esp. those who had lapsed under persecution (see pp. 26 & 31).
  • vs. Pelagians, on the priority of God's grace over free will; on human nature created good, but corrupted by sin (see pp. 31-32, 38).
    
• Monasticism Spreads and Develops:
  
  • Origins in the East: heremetic monasticism (isolated "monks" or hermits living "alone" in the desert); St. Anthony of Egypt (250-355)
  • Spreads in the West: cenobitic monasticism ("brothers" or "sisters" living in communal "monasteries"); St. Benedict of Nursia (480-550)
  • Communities of women ("nuns") also in both East (Melania & Paula in Jerusalem w/ Jerome) and West (Benedict's sister Scholastica).
    
• Church Life in the Patristic Period:
  
  • Sacramental Life becomes more structured: Baptism (esp. infants), Eucharist (Latin "Mass"), Penance (more frequent, but private).
    
  • Devotions to Mary and the saints become more popular: not "praying to" them, but asking for their intercession ("pray for us").
    
  • The Bible is "canonized" (list of OT & NT books settled); and translated into Latin (esp. the "Vulgate Bible" by St. Jerome, 374-419).
    
  • Overall, the Church grows & becomes more institutionalized, leadership clericalized, theology formalized, liturgy standardized.
    

Ch. 5 - Papacy and Empire Vie for Control of the Church (ca. AD 600 - 1150)

• Church/State Power Struggles: Popes/Bishops vs. Emperors/Kings:
  
  • late 6th century: Pope Gregory the Great (590-604) able to keep Church fairly independent of local kings
    
  • 7th century: Lombard kings in Italy dominate the Church & popes; tensions also with Byzantine emperors in Constantinople
    
  • 8th century: Frankish king Pepin defeats Lombards; "Donation of Pepin" gives Northern Italy (later "Papal States") to Popes
    
  • Christmas Day, 800: Pope Leo III crowns Charles the Great (Charlemagne) as "Emperor"
    • Is the Pope stronger, because he was the one who crowned Charles as emperor?
    • Or is the Emperor stronger, because God chose him as supreme ruler over Church & State?
      
  • 10th century: Ottonian Dynasty Emperors (Otto I & II & III, 963-1002) dominate the Church, appoint & depose Popes
    • Central Europe becomes known as "Holy Roman Empire"; growing tensions with Eastern/Byzantine Empire
    • HREmp much smaller than old "Roman Empire"; compare maps, pp. 9 and 49; note they use different scales!
      
• Corruption and Abuses in the Early Middle Ages:
  
  • Early form of "Divine Right of Kings" ideology: God chooses Kings to rule over everyone and everything in their realms
    
  • "Lay Investiture" Controversy: Lay (non-clergy) civil authorities select and "invest" bishops & clerics with their symbols of office
    
  • Popes & many bishops function as Territorial Rulers: they own land, collect taxes, maintain armies, form alliances, etc.
    
  • Inheritance Disputes: Church property (land & authority) passed on to children of non-celibate clergy (bishops & priests)
    
  • "Simony" = Selling of Church Offices (positions as bishops over dioceses or abbots over monasteries) to the wealthy & powerful
    
• Renewals & Reforms in the Early Medieval Church:
  
  • Carolingian Reform: Charles the Great (768-814) promotes education of clergy, standardization of liturgy, and conversion of pagans.
    
  • Clunaic Reform: Benedictine monastery of Cluny, southern France, leads many reforms, esp. independence of church vs. state.
    
  • Clerical Celibacy: to correct abuses of inheritance & simony (see above); growing movement since 360's; universally mandatory by 1139.
    
  • Cardinal Bishops: closest papal advisors/associates, as of 1049; after Pope's death, cardinals elect a successor (Emperor no longer appoints).
    
  • Gregorian Reform: Pope Gregory VII (1073-85) asserts papal authority over Emperor Henry IV; practice of "Lay Investiture" soon ends.

Ch. 6 - Catholics, Byzantines, and Muslims (AD 483 - 1054)

• The Rise of Islam
  • 622: Prophet Muhammad (570-632) moves from Mecca to Medina, beginning the religion of Islam (year 0 on the Muslim calendar)
    • "Islam" = "submission "; i.e. submission to "Allah" (Arabic word for the one & only "God"); similarly, "Muslim" = "one who submits"
  • after Muhammad's death (632), disputes over who should lead them causes his followers to split into Sunni and Shi'a factions
  • 600's: Muslims rapidly take over most of the Middle East, Egypt & North Africa, as far west as Spain, and spread east into Central Asia!
  • result: Muslims now control three of the five Christian Patriarchates: Jerusalem (Palestine), Alexandria (Egypt), Antioch (Syria)
  • only Rome and Constantinople remain Christian, thus leading to a more bilateral orientation (West vs. East) in Christianity
  • 732: Franks led by Charles Martel (grandfather of Charlemagne) defeat Muslims near Tours (S.France); stops Muslim advance into W.Europe
    • internal divisions politically break Muslim world into various Caliphates, Emirates, Kingdoms, Empires, etc.
    • yet annual pilgrimages to Mecca forge strong cultural unity among Muslims
  • MA: Western Christians mount various "Crusades" (1095-1291) to retake the Holy Land (esp. Jerusalem) from Muslim control (see ch. 7)
    • despite short setbacks, Islam continues to spread, e.g. taking over more and more of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire
    • Islamic scholarship flourishes; main centers of learning in Baghdad (mod. Iraq) and Cordova (S. Spain)
  • 1453: Muslim armies (Seljuk or Ottoman Turks) finally conquer Constantinople, thus ending the Byzantine Empire
    • Ottoman Empire continues to expand for centuries, threatening Europe from the Southeast
  • 1492: last Muslims driven out of Spain by "Catholic Kings" (Ferdinand & Isabella); all of Western Europe is Christian/Catholic again
    • yet Islam remains the dominant religion in most of Northern Africa and the Middle East to this day.
• The Byzantine Empire
  • 320's: small city of Byzantium greatly expanded & renamed "Constantinople" by Emperor Constantine; made new capital of Roman Empire
  • 395: death of Emperor Theodosius I, Roman Empire irrevocably divides E/W; Theodosian dynasty continues ruling in the East
  • 527-565: Emperor Justinian reigns over & expands the Byzantine Empire, retaking parts of central & southern Italy, Sicily, etc.
  • 714-741: Emperor Leo III attempts to suppress use of icons; orders his imperial troops to destroy or "break icons" (iconoclasm)
  • 780-802: Empress Irene convenes Second Council of Nicea (787), which condemns iconoclasm & restores the veneration of icons
  • 1054: Great Schism: official split between Greek/Eastern "Orthodox" Christians and Latin/Western "Catholic" Christians
  • 1453: Constantinople falls to Muslim/Turkish armies, the Byzantine Empire ceases to exist after over 1000 years!
• Differences between Eastern and Western Christianity in the Middle Ages:

Feature:	Western / Roman / Catholic		Eastern / Byzantine / Orthodox
Dominant Language:	Latin		Greek
Religious Center:	Rome (Central Italy)		Constantinople
Imperial Capital (by 800's):	Aachen (Northern Germany)		Constantinople
Church Authority:	Pope is the leader of all other bishops		All Patriarchs/Bishops are equal
Church/State Relations:	Church seeks to be independent		Church influenced/controlled by State
Political Reality:	Lots of small kingdoms, mostly separate; "Holy Roman Emperor" rarely strong		One unified (but shrinking) Empire; "Byzantine Emperor" sole leader
Muslim Influence:	Little fear of invasion in Europe after 732; Muslims control only Spain (less & less)		Muslims often threaten Eastern borders; conquer more and more over time
Celebration of Eucharist:	Daily "Mass"		Weekly "Divine Liturgy"
Communion Bread:	Unleavened		Leavened
Clerical Celibacy:	Required		Optional (mostly for Monks)
Sacrament of Confirmation:	Separate from Baptism; Administered only by bishops		Together with Baptism; Administered by any priests
Holy Spirit "proceeds" from	"the Father and the Son" (filioque; added)		"...the Father" (only; as in Creed of 381)
Sign of the Cross:	four fingers; top/bottom/left/right		three fingers; top/bottom/right/left
Religious Art:	some use of paintings & statues		elaborate use of icons, mosaics, etc.
Cultural Emphasis:	law, order, practical matters		theology, aesthetics, intellectual ideas
Common Cross Shapes: (from http://www.theweebsite.com/ heraldry/charges_crosses.html)

Ch. 7 - The Vanishing Dream of Catholic Christendom (AD 1095 - 1377)

• "Golden Age" of "Christendom"? (esp. 13th Century):
  • "Christendom" = the idea/ideal that Christianity is the basis of all social & political life
    • a type or example of "theocracy" (lit. "rule by God"); no separation, but total overlapping of church & state, religion & world
  • influenced by a strong papacy, esp. Pope Innocent III (1198-1216)
    • "Papal States" are now a geographical political unit, like other kingdoms
    • Popes control kings, esp. through "excommunication" of individuals & "interdict" of whole countries
  • led to the building of large monasteries and cathedrals: esp. Gothic architecture in France, England, Germany
  • also to innovations in theology & the establishment of universities (see ch. 8)
• Crusades (<Spanish "cruzada" = "crossed"; ref. to crosses on the shields and banners of the knights)
  • What/When? about nine separate large military campaigns spanning about 200 years (1095-1291)
  • Why/Goal? Christians wanted to recapture Palestine (the "Holy Land") from Muslim control
  • First (1095-1099) - called by Pope Urban II; ca. 20,000 Christian peasant-fighters killed by Muslims in Turkey; but 30,000 French soldiers capture a few key cities in Palestine, incl. Jerusalem in 1099, where they kill not only the Muslims, but also the Jewish inhabitants.
  • Second (1147-48) - Muslims/Saracens kill entire Christian/Crusader army of French King Louis VII & Holy Roman Emperor Conrad III.
  • 1187 - Muslim Saladin recaptures Jerusalem, triggering the Third Crusade (1189-1192) - Christians capture some parts of Holy Land
  • Fourth (1202-04) - on their way to Palestine, the Crusaders sack Constantinople & rule it until 1261
  • Fifth (1217); Sixth (1228-29); Seventh (1248); Eighth (1266); Ninth (1274) - more armed expeditions by various European kings; control of Jerusalem and other cities goes back & forth several times between Christians and Muslims
  • 1291 - Muslims recapture Acro, the last Crusader stronghold in the Holy Land (more Crusades called later, but not carried out)
• Reactions to Church wealth & power: Gospel Simplicity Movements
  • Some groups separated from the Catholic Church ("heretics"; e.g. Albigensians; eventually suppressed)
  • Some groups remained within the Catholic Church, as "mendicant" ("begging") religious orders:
    • esp. "Franciscans" = "Order of Friars Minor" (O.F.M.; founded by St. Francis of Assisi, 1181-1226) - emphasized poverty
    • and "Dominicans" = "Order of Preachers" (O.P.; founded by St. Dominic Guzman, 1170-1221) - emphasized preaching
• End of "Christendom"?
  • Several weak Popes at end of 13th cent. (e.g. Boniface VIII; 1294-1303); French Kings reassert control over Church & Popes
  • Popes live not in Rome but in Avignon, Southern France (1305-1377) - the "Babylonian Captivity" of the papacy (see ch. 10)

Ch. 8 - The Church's Intellectual Life (AD 735 - 1415)

• Ancient Greek Philosophy: Two Main Contrasting Systems
  
  • Plato (428-347 BC) - deductive approach (more idealistic):
    • "reality" is in the realm of ideas; our physical/material world contains only imperfect copies/shadows of the ideal reality
    • the highest idea or ultimate reality is God; thus theology is the first and highest form of knowledge, and all else flows out from it
  • Aristotle (384-322 BC) - inductive approach (more empirical):
    • "reality" is in the material realm; we start by observing the world around us, then abstract upwards to generalized ideas
    • knowledge is first gained through observation of the world; thus, all fields of knowledge are independent, but lead upward to God
• "Intellectual Life” in the Early Church:
  • NT apostles and evangelists (esp. Paul & John) should be considered "theologians"; their writings already contain "theology"
    • yet all NT theology is "situational" (addressing particular problems) rather than "systematic" (comprehensively explaining topics)
  • Patristic Fathers adopt/adapt Greek philosophy (esp. Platonism) to understand/explain Christian faith (see ch. 4 above)
    • esp. Augustine: crede ut intelligas ("believe that you may understand") and intellige ut credas ("understand that you may believe")
  • “Carolingian Renaissance”: Emperor Charlemagne appoints Alcuin of York (735-804) to promote education of clergy & laity
    • Trivium (3 basic subjects): grammar, rhetoric, logic; and Quadrivium (4 advanced subjects): arithmetic, music, geometry, astronomy
  • Cathedral Schools & Monasteries: established mostly for the education of clerics and monks; sometimes also open to sons of nobles
    • preservation/copying of ancient manuscripts & liturgical books; Cluny & Gregorian Reforms (see pp. 44-46)
• "Intellectual Life" in the High Middle Ages (esp. 12th & 13th centuries):
  • Rediscovery of the writings of Aristotle (in Arabic translations, esp. from Muslim Spain) led to the rise of "Scholasticism"
    • slow/gradual process; many church leaders resisted newer methods, since truth comes from God's revelation, not human reason
  • Foundation of independent "Universities" in Bologna (1088), Paris (1150), Oxford (1167), Cambridge (1208), Salamanca (1218), etc.
    • Establishment of four separate/specialized "faculties": theology, philosophy, law, and medicine
  • Scholars and teachers who presupposed the compatibility of faith & reason became known as "Scholastics" or "Schoolmen":
    • Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109) - developed an "ontological proof" for the existence of God (see Focus 16, p. 80)
    • Bonaventure, OFM (1221-74) - still thought that the human will was more important than the human intellect
    • esp. Thomas Aquinas, OP (1225-74) - most influential Christian theologian for centuries: comprehensive systemic "Thomism"
    • other influential theologians and teachers are officially recognized as "doctors" (not medical!) of the Church (see Focus 15, p. 79)
  • Some examples of applying scholastic thinking to religious questions:
    • What is a sacrament? How do they convey grace? How many are there? (seven; see Gilles, p. 74, and Rausch, ch. 5)
    • How can one explain the "real presence" of Jesus in the Eucharistic bread & wine? (“transubstantiation”)
    • How can one "prove" the existence of God? (cf. Aquinas' quinque viae or "five ways")
  • Teachings of some intellectuals cause problems and counter-reactions, esp. against those who advocated ecclesial reforms
    • William of Ockham (1285-1349): “nominalism” = abstract ideas like truth, beauty, church, etc." are merely names, not realities
    • John Wycliffe (1330-1384) - scholar in England (Oxford); said all Christians are priests; obey only the Bible, not the Church
    • Johann Hus (1372-1415) - scholar/priest from Bohemia (Prague); tried and condemned for heresy and burned at the stake
• Final Caution: Don't Equate "Faith" and "Theology" (they are different, although closely related)
  • Christian "Faith" = WHAT Christians BELIEVE (about God, Jesus, life, etc.), based on and expressed in Bible, Creeds, Doctrines, Liturgy
  • Christian "Theology" = HOW Christians EXPLAIN these beliefs rationally, using human language, intellectual reasoning, philosophical systems
  • There may be several different theologies to explain a single tenet of Christian faith; for example:
    • "Real Presence" = the belief that Jesus is (somehow) really (not just symbolically) present in the consecrated bread and wine
    • "Transubstantiation" = a theological concept to explain how (based on Aristotelian metaphysics of "substance" and "accidents")
    • Other theological explanations are called "Transsignification," "Transfinalization," "Consubstantiation," "Memorialism," etc.

Ch. 9 - Everyday Life in the Catholic Middle Ages (ca. AD 1150 - 1350)

• Life on Earth is a "Religious Drama" - battleground of "good vs. evil"
  • life's goal: attain salvation (eternal reward in heaven) and avoid damnation (eternal punishment in hell)
  • no separation between the "religious" and "secular" worlds, contrary to how Westerners think today
• Societal Life is structured hierarchically (top-down authority, like a pyramid):
  • "Feudalism" - you must obey people who rank above you (your "lords"), but can command people below you (your "vassals")
    • both in State: Emperor, Kings, Princes, Dukes, lesser Nobles, Knights, Peasants (later also a Merchant class)
    • and in Church: Pope, Cardinals, Archbishops, Bishops & Abbots, Priests, Monks & Nuns, Lay people
  • Geographical organization - where you lived determined where and to whom you belonged (both politically and ecclesially):
    • each "diocese" has one "bishop" with one "cathedral" (the church with the bishop's "chair"; usually in the largest city)
    • each local "parish" has one "pastor" and one central "church" (but many other "chapels" in the surrounding area)
• Types of Spirituality (prayer/ devotional life) vs. Theology (doctrines/ intellectual teachings):
  • Monastic Spirituality - ora et labora (prayer & work); lectio divina (spiritual reading); Liturgy of the Hours (5x daily communal prayer)
  • Feminine Spirituality - St. Bernard of Clairvaux & the Cistercians; focus on receptivity, surrender to God (vs. action / conquest)
    • many influential women in society & church: Hildegard of Bingen (d. 1179); Queen Eleanor of Aquitaine (d. 1204); Clare of Assisi (d. 1253); Bridget of Sweden (d. 1373); Catherine of Siena (d. 1380); et al.
  • Lay Spirituality - expressed in popular writings like The Cloud of Unknowing (anonymous; 14th cent. English), Revelations of Divine Love (Julian of Norwich; d. 1413), The Imitation of Christ (Thomas à Kempis; d. 1471), etc.
  • Devotia Moderna (lit. "Modern devotion") - lay movements emphasizing asceticism, prayer, communal life, service to the poor
  • Popular Piety - rosary (memorize basic prayers); relics (mementos of saints), pilgrimages (visit holy sites), daily Mass (pray esp. for the dead)
    • many good aspects (striving for holiness & godliness), but also many abuses (superstitions, quackery)
  • Visual Bible - most people were illiterate; saw many biblical stories in paintings, sculptures, stained glass windows, pageants, etc.
    • but popular imagination goes far beyond the Bible, esp. torments of purgatory & hell in Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri (d. 1321)

Ch. 10 - The End of Catholic Middle Ages (ca. AD 1300 - 1500)

• The 14th and 15th Centuries: Low Point of Western Christianity!  Overview:
  • contrast to the "high point" in the 12th and 13th Centuries (see ch. 7-8 above)
  • huge problems both in the Church and in the world; leads to overall feelings of despair, gloom; apocalyptic expectations
  • yet also the beginning of the Renaissance - a "rebirth" of culture, art, science, technology, learning, individualism, nationalism, etc.
  • and in the East, the center of Orthodox Christianity shifts from Byzantine Empire (Constantinople) to the Slavic Nations (esp. Moscow)
• Huge Problems in the Church:
  • The "Babylonian Captivity" of the Papacy (1305-1377); a.k.a. the Avignon Papacy
    • after Pope Boniface VIII dies (1303), French King (Philip IV, 1285-1314) forces cardinals to move from Rome to Avignon (S. France)
    • seven Popes rule from Avignon; mostly corrupt, puppets of French monarchy (see "Timeline" in Gilles, p. 216, for names and dates)
    • many people try to convince the Pope to return to Rome, esp. Catherine of Siena (d. 1380)
    • finally, Pope Gregory XI, flees Avignon and returns to Rome in 1377; but not all cardinals go with him; he dies in 1378.
  • The "Western Schism" (1378-1417) - period of two or three simultaneous Popes (or "Anti-Popes")
    • [caution: don't confuse this with the "Great Schism": the division between Western/Catholic and Eastern/Orthodox Christianity in 1054!]
    • when Gregory XI dies, the cardinals in Rome elect a successor, but the cardinals who remained in Avignon also elect a successor:
    • the Roman Line: "Popes" Urban VI (1378-89); Boniface IX (1389-1404); Innocent VII (1404-06); Gregory XII (1406-15; d. 1417)
    • the Avignon Line: "Anti-Popes" Clement VII (1378-94); Benedict XIII (1394-1423); Clement VIII (1423-29); Benedict XIV (1430-37); Felix V (1439-49)
  • Attempts at Church Reform: "Conciliarism"
    • Having two simultaneous Popes caused great confusion (people ask: Which one is legitimate? Which one should we obey?)
      • So the "Conciliar Movement" grew, claiming that the Church's ultimate authority, even above the Pope, is a "Council"
    • Council of Pisa (1409) tried to end the papal schism by deposing both the Roman and Avignon Popes and electing a new "Pope"
      • but neither Gregory XII in Rome nor Benedict XIII in Avignon resigned; result: now three men claimed to be Pope!
      • the Pisan Line: "Anti-Popes" Alexander V (1409-1410), succeeded by John XXIII (1410-1415)
    • Council of Constance (1414-17) - finally cleans up the mess, ending the Western Schism (for the most part)
      • they convince both John XXIII and Gregory XII to resign (but not Benedict XIII in Avignon!),
      • and elect Pope Martin V (1417-31), who promises to convene councils regularly (but doesn't!)
• Huge Problems in Western Society overall:
  • "Black Death" or Bubonic Plague (1330's-52) - kills about 1/3 of Europe's population; God's punishment? growth in witchcraft/superstition
  • Peasant Revolts - esp. 1381 in England, but also throughout much of the 14th century, along with several severe famines, social unrest
  • Hundred Years War (actually longer: 1337-1453) - mainly England vs. France (Joan of Arc, d. 1431), but involves most of Europe!
• Eastern Orthodox Christianity (cont. from ch. 6 above; see Focus 19)
  • 9th Century: Christianity gradually expands into Slavic areas: e.g. Bulgaria (King Boris baptized 865), and Duchy of Moscow
    • Cyril & Methodius: two brothers from Greece; great missionaries, called "Apostles to the Slavs"
    • they invent the "Cyrillic" alphabet (still used in Russian & other Slavic languages!); translate Bible & liturgical books into Slavonic
  • 1054: Great Schism: official split between Greek/Eastern "Orthodox" Christians and Latin/Western "Catholic" Christians
    • most Slavic countries align themselves with Constantinople rather than Rome;
    • Eastern Churches organized by countries & language groups (Armenian, Serbian, Bulgarian, Russian, etc.)
  • 1453: Constantinople falls to Muslim/Turkish armies; the Byzantine Empire ceases to exist after over 1000 years!
    • Greek Orthodox Church survives, as a small minority in Muslim lands (esp. today's Turkey & Greece)
    • Russian Orthodox Church now dominant; Moscow considered the “3rd Rome”; Russian ruler called "Czar" ("Caesar")!

Ch. 11 - Entering the Age of Reformation (AD 1450's - 1520's)

• What is the Protestant Reformation? How did it begin?
  • A major reform movement, begun in the 16th century, mostly in Central & Northern Europe, that led to many divisions in Western Christianity
    • Don't confuse this with other (earlier & later) "Reform" movements in Church history (e.g. Carolingian, Clunaic, Gregorian Reforms, ch. 5)
    • Don't assume it happened all at once; the Protestant movement involved many players, many issues, over many decades.
  • October 31, 1517 - traditional date for the beginning of the Protestant Reformation, when Martin Luther (1483-1546), an Augustinian Catholic priest and scripture professor, posted his "95 Theses" (in Latin) on the door of the castle church in Wittenberg, Germany.
    • Why there? A typical way to announce a scholarly debate: Luther (local Augustinian priest) vs. Tetzel (visiting Dominican preacher).
    • What about? Mostly "indulgences," but also other issues Luther saw as abuses in the Roman Catholic Church of his day (see ch. 12).
• Background Factors Influencing the Reformation: "Change in the Air"
  • Renaissance (early 1300's) - "rebirth" of culture and art, explosion of knowledge, scientific discoveries, technological inventions, etc.
  • Movable Type Printing Press (1453) - Johannes Gutenberg invents movable type, making printing faster & cheaper than ever before!
  • Discovery of "New World" (1492) - Columbus' voyage literally shatters people's world-view; no longer just "one world"!
  • Rise of Nationalism: local dukes, princes, and kings in Western Europe want more autonomy vs. the "Holy Roman Emperor"
  • Rise of Individualism: people more & more think for themselves, question authority, live independently; merchant/middle class grows
• Why did the Protestant Reformation Succeed and Gradually Splinter Western Christianity?
  • Why wasn’t Luther burned at the stake, like some previous reformers?
    • More people knew about (and many agreed with) Luther's ideas, due to wide distribution of his writings.
    • Duke Frederick of Saxony supported Luther; Emperor Charles V disagreed but promised him no harm.
  • Why didn’t this reform stay within church, like the mendicant orders of the 13th century?
    • Rise of Nationalism & Individualism led to a lessened sense of dependence on and connection with Rome.
    • Popes from 1520's to 1540's reacted very slowly and badly; underestimating the severity of the situation!

Ch. 12 - The Reformation: Protestant Phase One (AD 1517 - 1555)

• Martin Luther: Biographical Outline

• LUTHER's Theological Emphases (in ultra-condensed form):
  • Indulgences - one cannot "buy" one's way out of purgatory or into heaven; buying "indulgences" is a terrible abuse
  • Church - all people can receive grace directly from God; the institutional Church is not the sole dispenser of grace
  • Sacraments - only Baptism and Eucharist are true sacraments, "instituted by Christ"; but other rites can be beneficial
  • Bible - the "gospel" is the basis of Christianity; all religious doctrines and traditions must be based on the scriptures;
    Paul is the greatest theologian; vs. James is an "epistle of straw"; the "Apocrypha" books are removed from the OT
  • Faith - the death of Jesus is what brings salvation, not any religious practices or "good works" that we might do

Ch. 13 - The Reformation: Protestant Phase Two (AD 1520's - 1620's)

The Protestant Reformation spreads quickly throughout Central and Northern Europe (see the handout maps!), but splintered into many different factions or denominations, already during Luther's lifetime. The following were the earliest and/or largest groups:

• Lutherans (esp. German & Scandinavian)
  • 1517 - MARTIN LUTHER posts 95 Theses (see ch. 12); his ideas quickly spread; some German princes support Luther; others remain Catholic
  • 1527 - Lutheranism spreads to Scandinavia (esp. Sweden)
  • 1529 - Diet of Speyer: Emperor Charles V proposes compromise with religious freedom; but some princes "protest"!
  • 1529 - Luther publishes a Small Catechism (for common believers) and a Large Catechism (for clergy to use in teaching)
  • 1530 - Luther's associate Philip Melancthon (d. 1560) publishes the "Augsburg Confession," a summary of Lutheran beliefs
  • 1546 - Religious wars (Protestants vs. Catholics), already raging for decades in German territories, worsen after Luther dies
  • 1555 - Peace of Augsburg: cuius regio, eius religio = lit. "whose region; his religion"; each prince determines his territory's religion
    • if your religion differs from your prince, you are free to migrate to another place where the prince shares your religion
    • thus some areas of Germany become completely Lutheran (esp. N. & E.), others remain completely Catholic (esp. W. & S.)
  • 1580 - Book of Concord published; compilation of earlier Lutheran writings, intended to unify expanding Lutheran movements
  • Lutherans in America today (esp. upper Midwest) stem mostly from German and Scandinavian immigrants
• Anabaptists (radical "left-wing" reformers; lit. "Re-baptizers"; Mennonites; Brethren)
  • 1521 - Thomas Muentzer (1489-1525) begins a "rebaptizing" movement in Zwickau, Germany; thinks Luther did not go far enough; preaches radical return to Early Christianity; common ownership of property; baptism only for adults, not infants; equality of all believers
  • 1524-25 - Peasant's War, of which Muentzer is one of the leaders, but is soon captured and executed
  • 1525 - Conrad Grebel and associates begin the Swiss Brethren movement in Zurich, which spreads to Germany, Austria, Netherlands, etc.
  • Anabaptists persecuted from all sides (Catholics, Lutherans, other Protestants); often exiled; develop strict pacifist theology
  • Successors today include various groups: Amish, Hutterites, Mennonites, as well as Brethren, Quakers, Baptists, etc.
• Reformed Christians (esp. Swiss & Dutch & Scotch; Calvinists; Puritans in England & America)
  • 1523 - Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) begins reformed movement in Zurich, Switzerland; opposes not only Catholic theology, but also Lutherans and Anabaptists; Swiss Reformed Movement spreads to 6 cantons, but 5 other cantons remain Catholic
  • 1528 - Protestant reforms begin in Scotland; as of 1541, John Knox (1503-72) becomes the most influential leader
  • 1536 - JOHN CALVIN (1509-64), lawyer turned church-reformer, exiled from France; settles in Geneva, Switzerland; publishes Institutes of the Christian Religion (expanded eds. until 1559)
    • As of 1541, Calvin leads the Geneva Presbytery (council of elders); establishes a strict theocracy; government based totally on Reformed Protestant principles; thus civil law = religious law; sin = crime; punishments for doctrinal dissent; etc.
  • 1563 - Puritan movement begins in England, opposed to the monarchy-dominated Church of England
  • 1571 - Synod of Emden establishes the Dutch Reformed Church (reformers were in the Netherlands earlier, but driven out)
  • 1620 - "Pilgrims" (Puritans fleeing from persecution in England) begin settling in America, the "New Jerusalem" or "Promised Land"
  • Many American Protestant denominations today have "Calvinist" theology, including Congregationalists, Presbyterians, Baptists, Church of Christ, Disciples of Christ, Reformed Church in America, etc.
• Anglicans ("Church of England"; Episcopalians)
  • King HENRY VIII (born 1491; reigns 1509-47)
    • 1521 - Pope Leo X declares him a "Defender of the Faith" for his opposition to Luther & other reformers
    • 1528 - Henry asks Pope Clement VII (1523-34) to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon; request denied!
    • 1533 - Henry marries Anne Boleyn (2nd of six wives) and is excommunicated from the Catholic Church by Pope Clement VII
    • 1534 - Parliament passes the Act of Succession, requiring an oath of allegiance to the king as head of the Church in England
    • 1535 - Henry has Sir Thomas More, the Lord Chancellor (#2 man) of England, executed for refusing to take the oath (see Focus #25)
    • 1536 - Henry abolishes all Catholic religious orders in England and secularizes their land holdings; but he still strongly opposes most Protestant ideas from Central Europe (Lutheran, Calvinist, Anabaptist, etc.)
    • 1547 - after Henry's death, Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, brings Lutheran & Calvinist reforms into Anglican Church
  • King Edward VI (1547-53) - the only surviving son of Henry VIII; never really rules (king at age 9; dies at age 15)
  • Queen Mary I (Mary Tudor; 1553-58) - reestablishes Catholic Church in England; executes many Protestants ("Bloody Mary"), incl. Cranmer
  • Queen Elizabeth I (1558-1603; reigns 45 years!) - reverses most policies of her half-sister; re-establishes Protestantism in England
    • wide persecution of Catholics, arrests & executions of many priests, esp. Jesuits who came from continental Europe
    • publishes The Book of Common Prayer to unify liturgical practice throughout the realm
    • publishes Thirty-Nine Articles on official Anglican theology, as a "middle path" between Catholicism and Protestantism
  • King James I (1603-25) - for whom the "King James Version" of the Bible (English translation of 1611-20) is named
  • Today's world-wide "Anglican Communion" consists of "Anglican Churches" in most English-speaking countries (former British colonies);
  • Two main groups in America today: the "Protestant Episcopal Church" (sometimes called "low-church" or just "Episcopalians") vs. the "Anglican Church in America" (often called "high-church" or "Anglo-Catholic"), who stress that their theology is very close to Catholicism, except for accepting papal authority.
• Huguenots (French Protestants)
  • King Francis I (1515-47)
    • Protestant ideas spread more slowly in France at first, since the French Church was already more independent of Rome
    • But after Francis I kills some Protestants, the "Huguenot" movement increases, esp. in Southern France
  • Kings Henry II (1547-59), Francis II (1559-60), Charles IX (1560-74), Henry III (1574-89) - all remain Catholic, persecute Protestants
    • 1562 - massacre of Huguenots at Vassey begins large-scale religious wars in France (Cath. North vs. Prot. South);
    • 1572 - Charles IX has thousands of Huguenots killed in the "St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre
  • King Henry IV (1589-1610)
    • 1589 - Duke Henry of Navarre, a Protestant, becomes king, but has trouble ruling the Catholic majority in the North (esp. Paris)
    • 1593 - King Henry IV converts to Catholicism ("Paris is worth a Mass"); France again becomes mostly Catholic
    • 1598 - "Edict of Nantes" grants religious freedom to Protestants in France, thus ending the civil wars
  • In the USA today there are only a few "Huguenot" churches, since not many French Protestants ever emigrated to the Americas
     
• CALVIN's Theological Emphases (in ultra-condensed form):
  • the centrality of the Bible for all aspects of Christian life, which leads to completely literal interpretations of the scriptures
  • the total depravity of human nature in contrast to God's grandeur; we can do nothing good without the help of divine grace
  • predestination: God created a few people destined for heaven, but most are destined for hell; we can't change our destiny!
  • receiving the Eucharist unites believers with Jesus, but the bread and wine do not literally contain the "real presence" of Jesus
  • Reformed/Calvinist theology can be summarized in the "four solas" (see Rausch, ch. 4)

Ch. 14 - The Reformation: The Catholic Phase (AD 1500's)

• Reform Movements within the Catholic Church before and after Luther:
  • Popular maxim (but not always put into practice): Ecclesia semper reformanda = "The Church is always reforming"
  • Some Catholic priests and bishops worked for Church reform in the 14th-16th centuries: Spanish Dominican Vincent Ferrer (1350-1419); Italian Franciscans Bernardino of Siena (1380-1444) and John Capistrano (1386-1456), German Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa (1401-64); English Cardinal John Fisher (1469-1535); Italian Cardinals Thomas Cajetan (1480-1547) and Gasparo Contarini (1483-1542); Spanish Carmelite John of the Cross (1542-91); etc.
  • Even lay Catholics wrote and advocated reforms, including Italian lay Dominican Catherine of Siena (1347-1380); Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466-1536); Sir Thomas More in England (1478-1535); St. Teresa of Avila (1515-1582; see Focus 28); etc.
  • New Catholic religious orders were founded to help reform the Church: the Theatines (1524), Capuchins (1525), Barnabites (1530), Ursulines (1535), Jesuits (1540), etc.
• Papal Reactions to Luther, Henry VIII, and other Protestants (see also the table for Ch. 12 above):
  • Pope Leo X (1513-21; Giovanni di Lorenzo de' Medici) - resists reforms; excommunicates Martin Luther
  • Pope Adrian VI (1522-23; Adrian Florisz Dedel) - had taught Erasmus & Charles V; became archbishop in Spain; as Pope attempts reforms, begins dialogues with Lutherans, but dies too soon to have much lasting effect
  • Pope Clement VII (1523-34; Giulio di Giuliano de Medici) - neglects ecclesial reform; involved instead in political intrigues; greatly angers Emperor Charles V, who leads combined Catholic & Lutheran troops to sack Rome (!) in 1527; excommunicates Henry VIII in 1533.
  • Pope Paul III (1534-49; Alessandro Farnese) - calls and begins the Council of Trent
  • Pope Julius III (1549-55; Giovanni Maria Ciocchi del Monte) - calls and presides over the 2nd session at Trent
  • Pope Marcellus II (1555; Marcello Cervini degli Spannochi) - reformer, but only reigns April 9 - May 1 !
  • Pope Paul IV (1555-59; Giovanni Pietro Carafa) - super-strict reformer, esp. of the papal curia (central administration in Rome); publishes Index of Forbidden Books; mandates Imprimatur (lit. "it may be printed"); restores "Congregation of the Inquisition"
  • Pope Pius IV (1559-65; Giovanni Angelo Medici) - calls and concludes the 3rd session at Trent
• The Council of Trent (1545-1563) - see also my list of the 21 Ecumenical Councils
  • Convoked by Pope Paul III in 1535, but did not begin meeting until 10 years later in Trent (German-speaking Northern Italy)
  • Three main sessions (1545-49, 1551-52, 1562-63); attended by about 450 bishops total (max. 255 bishops at one time).
  • Doctrines Defined: clarified Catholic theology vs. Protestant positions (e.g. 73 books of the Bible: 46 OT, 27 NT; Catholic teachings on sacraments, transubstantiation, scripture & tradition, faith & good works, grace & merit, etc.)
  • Reforms Mandated: abolished simony (selling church offices) and nepotism (giving jobs to relatives), standardized liturgy & law, promoted better education of clergy (in seminaries), many other ecclesial reforms (e.g. bishops can have only one diocese, and must reside there!).
  • Note: Anything related to the Council of Trent is called "Tridentine" (documents, theology, liturgy, etc.).
• The Society of Jesus (Jesuits; abbr. S.J.):
  • Founded by St. Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556), a Basque soldier-turned-student and seven "companions" at the University of Paris.
  • "Ignatian Spirituality" based on the Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius (30-day program of intensive prayer and discernment).
  • First companions take private vows in 1534; while waiting to go to the Holy Land, they preach, teach, care for the poor throughout Italy.
  • Approved as a religious order in 1540 by Pope Paul III; Jesuits take a special vow of obedience to the Roman Pontiff in matters of mission.
  • Before Ignatius dies, there are already over 1000 Jesuits; very influential in restoring the Catholic Church throughout Europe.
  • Best known for missionary work (St. Francis Xavier to India & Japan; others to South America), spirituality (giving retreats, spiritual direction, hearing confessions), and education (many schools & colleges; e.g. 48 high schools & 28 colleges/universities in USA today, incl. USF).
  • Mottos: Ad majorem Dei gloriam (AMDG: "To the greater glory of God"); also "Finding God in All Things" & "Contemplation in Action" & "Service of faith and promotion of justice" (cf. USF's "Educating Minds and Hearts to Change the World")

Ch. 15 - The Reformation: Its Bleak Aftermath (AD 1600's - 1700's)

• Overview of 17th Century:
  • more and more arguments, divisions, and wars - with both political and religious causes!
  • not just Catholics vs. Protestants; but Lutherans vs. Calvinists vs. Anabaptists; Anglicans vs. Puritans;
  • also within Catholicism: Emperors & Kings vs. Popes; France vs. Austria; etc.
  • by the end of 17th Century: "Enlightenment" begins and "Secularism" grows
     
• England:
  • review: House of Tudor (1509-1603): Henry VIII; Edward VI; Mary I; Elizabeth I (see Ch. 13 above)
    • Anglican Church controlled by English monarchy, but still very "Catholic" in liturgy & theology (except for accepting papal authority)
  • House of Stuart, Anglo-Catholics: James I (1603-25); Charles I (1625-49); [Puritans in control]; Charles II (1660-85); James II (1685-89)
    • royals have more Catholic sentiments, want traditional Catholic liturgy and more connections with Rome;
    • but the "Puritan" movement grows (want to "purify" the Church of England of "popish" or Catholic elements)
    • 1642-51 - English Civil Wars: Parliamentarians (Protestant/Puritan) vs. Royalists (Anglican)
    • 1649 - under Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell, King Charles I is found guilty of treason by the "Rump Parliament" and beheaded
    • 1653-58 - Oliver Cromwell is the semi-dictatorial "Lord Protector" of England; tries to make England a strictly "Puritan" state
    • 1659 - Royalists restore the English monarchy and the Anglican Church; execute the "regicides"
    • 1689 - Parliament deposes King James II for being too Catholic, and brings Protestant Prince William from Holland to be King
  • House of Stuart, Protestants: William & Mary (1689-1702); Queen Anne (1702-14)
    • Anglicans again firmly in control of the Church of England; Puritans flee to America;
    • Catholics flee to Continental Europe or "go underground" in England
       
• France:
  • 17th Century France remains predominantly Catholic; but strong tensions within the Church:
    • some want a French Catholic Church mostly independent of Rome (Gallicanism; "Gaul" = Latin name for France)
    • others want to maintain close ties with Rome and the Pope (Ultramontanism; lit. "Beyond the Mountains")
    • overall, Church attendance shrinks; more & more people reject religion completely; turn to philosophy (see Focus #30)
  • King Louis XIII (b. 1601; reigns 1610-43)
    • real power behind the throne was Cardinal Richelieu (b. 1585; Sec. of State 1616; Chief Minister 1624; dies 1642)
    • continues policy of tolerating Protestant Huguenots (since Edict of Nantes, 1598);
  • King Louis XIV (b. 1638; reigns 1643-1715; over 7 decades!)
    • 1682 - promulgates "Four Articles," asserting royal control over the French Church
    • 1685 - revokes the Edict of Nantes; Huguenots are persecuted; must convert to Catholicism or flee France
  • French Catholics gradually become predominantly Jansenist:
    • named after Dutch Catholic bishop Cornelis Jansen (1585-1638) - predestination theology, very similar to Calvinism
    • 1642 - Jansenism condemned by Pope Urban VI, but the movement grows (e.g. philosopher Blaise Pascal, 1623-62)
    • Jansenists were harshly ascetical & theologically pessimistic: feared God's wrath & punishments of hell (see Focus #29)
       
• Germany:
  • Ongoing tensions between Catholics & Lutherans & Calvinists
  • 30 Years War (1618-48): involves many countries, but fought mostly in German territories; millions killed!
  • Ends in the Peace of Westphalia: all three major denominations are now legal in Germany;
  • But overall, people are tired of decades of religious strife, so secularism steadily grows and religious practice declines.
     
• Other Countries:
  • Scandinavia (Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland) - remain predominantly Lutheran
  • Netherlands (lit. "Low Countries") - split between Dutch Reformed (Holland) and Flemish Catholic (Flanders/Belgium)
  • Switzerland - remains about 1/2 Reformed and 1/2 Catholic
  • Spain, Poland, Italy, Austria, Hungary - remain predominantly Roman Catholic
  • Eastern Europe (Russia, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, etc.) - remain mostly Orthodox

Ch. 16 - The Church in the New World (AD 1492 - 1960)

• Evangelization: with Europeanization or Inculturation?
  • Evangelization - bringing the Christian gospel to other peoples (<Gk. euangelizo = "to announce good news")
  • Europeanization - early colonists thought God also wanted them to bring European "civilization" to "primitive" peoples
  • Inculturation - integrating Christianity into new cultures without also forcing the missionary's foreign culture upon them
    • Example: Jesuit "Reductions" in South America
    • Example: "Chinese Rites" Controversy
  • Evangelization & Inculturation today:
    • Catholics & Liberal Protestants - tend to promote more inculturation, also emphasize service & promotion of justice
    • Evangelicals & Fundamentalist Protestants - less emphasis on inculturation, more on biblical faith & theological truth
       
• Revolutions & Reactions:
  • Early Democratic/Republican Revolutions:
    • USA (1775-1783) - "All men are created equal"; American colonists vs. British (King George III)
    • France (1789-99) - "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity"; republicans (Robespierre) vs. monarchists (King Louis XVI)
    • Mexico (1810-21) - "Mexicanos, Viva Mexico!"; Indians & Mestizos (Fr. Hidalgo) vs. native Spaniards
    • many South American countries - 1810's & 1820's
  • Royal Restorations, Further Revolutions, Nationalist Movements:
  • USA - War of 1812-14: British attempt to regain control of USA, but are defeated
  • France - Napoleon becomes "First Consul" in 1800; "Emperor" in 1804; takes over much of Europe; finally defeated 1815
  • 1815 - "Congress of Vienna" restores the Monarchies in much of Europe
  • 1848 - democratic revolutions sweep Germany, Italy, other countries, but are mostly defeated within 1-2 years
  • 1860's & 70's - growing nationalist movements lead to united Germany, united Italy, larger Austria-Hungary, etc.
     
• Catholicism and Anti-Catholicism in America:
  • "America" - named after Amerigo Vespucci (1454-1512), Italian navigator who worked for King of Spain; explored much of S. America (1499, 1501, 1512), proving it was a new continent [Columbus always thought he had reached Asia!]
    • South America - colonized by Portuguese (esp. Brazil) and Spanish (most of the rest); many indigenous people/languages remain
    • Central America - between the Isthmus of Panama and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (thus includes 7 of 31 Mexican States)
    • North America - not just Canada and the USA, but also most of Mexico! not just English, but also Spanish and French
    • Latin America - Spanish or Portuguese-speaking portions of South, Central, and North America; thus historically Catholic
  • Christianity in North America - not just Protestant USA!
    • Catholicism comes with Spanish colonists in the Southwest (1540) & Florida (1565)
    • Catholicism also comes with French colonists in Quebec (1534, 1608) & Louisiana (1682)
    • Protestantism comes with British colonists on the East Coast (1607, 1620; at first mostly Puritans, later also Anglicans)
    • Catholicism comes into a few English-speaking colonies (esp. Maryland, 1634)
  • Anti-Catholicism in English-Speaking America - (see Gilles 155-57):
    • before Independence - some states tolerated or welcomed religious diversity (MD, PA, RI); others were strongly Puritan, anti-Catholic (MA, VA)
    • after Independence - despite the First Amendment (1789), "Native American" party (1837), "Know-Nothing" party (1852) & KKK (1866) were very anti-Catholic
  • Gradual Acceptance of Catholicism in the USA -
    • Catholics among "Founding Fathers" (esp. Carroll family: Charles, Daniel, John)
    • Ground-breaking Catholics in the Federal Government:
      • Roger Taney (first Chief Justice, 1836-64)
      • James Campbell (first Pres. Cabinet member, Postmaster General, 1853-57)
      • Al Smith (first Presidential candidate, 1928)
      • John F. Kennedy (first elected President, 1960)
    • Catholics in the Civil War: lots of Irish immigrants fought in the Union Army; Sisters of Charity care for wounded soldiers on both sides
    • Catholics in Society: establish many schools, universities, hospitals, orphanages, other social agencies

Ch. 17 - The Church Reacts to the Modern World (AD 1770's - 1900's)

• The Papacy in the Revolutionary and Modern World:
  • there have been 265 Popes (not incl. St. Peter) in about 2000 years (avg. reign only 7.3 years each!)
  • but there were only 7 Popes from 1775 to 1903 (over 128 years), incl. 4 of the longest-reigning ones!
  • so, the 19th Century papacy overall was very conservative (many named "Pius"!), opposed to "liberalism" & "democracy" & "modernism," supportive of aristocracies & restoration of monarchies ("God appoints Kings and princes, Popes and bishops, to rule over people")
  • Note: this terminology is slightly different from today; "liberal" = "individual freedom/liberty"; "democrat" = "power in the people"; so 19th Century "liberal democrats" opposed "hierarchical aristocrats" (not today's liberal vs. conservative; nor Democrat vs. Republican)
     
• Pope Pius VI (1775-99; almost 25 years; 4th longest reigning)
  • French Revolution (1789) leads to strong persecution of the Church, esp. under dictator Maximilien Robespierre (d. 1794)
  • he forces priests to support revolutionary ideas, or executes them, and confiscates church property
  • Pius VI condemns the revolution and its "republican" movement
     
• Pope Pius VII (1800-1823; over 23 years; 6th longest reigning)
  • French Consul/Emperor Napoleon (1800-1815) at first makes a "Concordat" with Rome (1801),
    but later (1809) annexes the Papal States and imprisons Pius VII
  • after Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo (1815), the "Congress of Vienna" restores many European monarchies, incl. Papal States
  • wars of independence all over Latin America; Pius VII urges local bishops to support colonial governments
     
• Popes Leo XII (1823-29); Pius VIII (1829-32); Gregory XVI (1831-46) - another 23 years total
  • further conflicts in Europe between liberal/democratic movements and reactionary/aristocratic monarchies
  • Church increasingly develops a "fortress mentality," feeling "attacked" by all the "evils" of the "modern" world
  • e.g., Gregory XVI condemns freedom of religion and freedom of the press (encyclical Mirari Vos, 1832)
     
• POPE PIUS IX (1846-78; almost 32 years! longest-reigning Pope ever, not counting St. Peter)
  • Pius IX's name is literally "Pio Nono" in Italian; but he's often called "Pio No-No," since he opposed almost anything "modern"
  • 1848 - revolutions sweep Europe; Pius IX flees from Rome; Italian nationalists confiscate Church property
  • 1849 - Italian nationalists are (temporarily) defeated; Pius IX returns to Rome, where "fortress mentality" grows
  • 1854 - Pius IX declares the "Immaculate Conception" as an irreformable dogma (i.e., it must be believed by Catholics)
  • 1861 - Victor Emmanuel II becomes first "King of Italy," unifying more and more of the Italian peninsula into one state
  • 1864 - Pius IX issues Syllabus of Errors, eighty propositions condemned as false errors, esp. anything related to "liberalism"
  • 1869-70 - Pius IX presides over the (First) Vatican Council, which officially defines "Papal Infallibility" (see Gilles, p. 164)
  • 1870 - Italian forces capture the Papal States & make Rome their capital; Pius IX declares himself a "prisoner in the Vatican"
  • overall, Pius IX believed God appointed Kings and Popes to rule over people, so he acted like an absolute monarch himself!
     
• Pope Leo XIII (1878-1903; over 25 years; 3rd longest reigning ever, after Pope John Paul II)
  • promoted "Catholic social teaching" with encyclical Rerum Novarum (1891), esp. about rights of workers
  • yet strongly opposed "modernist" movement influenced by historical-critical biblical studies (encyclical Providentissimus Deus, 1893)
  • continued opposition against "liberal" and "democratic" movements (incl. condemning so-called "Americanism" in 1899)
     
• New Catholic Movements in the United States of America:
  • Paulist Fathers - first new congregation of Catholic priests in North America, founded by Isaac Hecker (1819-88), a convert from Methodism who remained open to "ecumenical" dialogue with Protestants (see Focus 33)
  • Sisters of Charity (St. Elizabeth Ann Seton; Emmitsburg, PA; 1805), Sisters of Charity of Nazareth (Catherine Spalding; Bardstown, KY, 1824), and other congregations of women religious establish schools, hospitals, etc. (see Focus 34)
  • U.S. Catholics overall feel caught in the middle: Papal Rome see them as too American; Protestant Americans see them as too Roman!

Ch. 18 - The Path of Protestantism (AD 1550's - 1880's)

• Lutheranism (see also ch. 11-13 above)
  • debates continue over the priory of Faith vs. Good Works (sola fide = "faith alone") and Scripture vs. Tradition (sola scriptura = "scripture alone"); also Grace vs. Merit (sola gratia = "grace alone") and Christ's actions vs. Our responses (solus Christus = "Christ alone")
  • but don't Lutherans still accept Nicene Creed, teachings of Augustine, etc.? aren't these post-biblical Christian "traditions"?
  • and whose interpretation of scripture is correct? disagreements over scripture lead to more & more divisions among Protestants
  • "Lutheran theology" gets academically developed and standardized ("Lutheran Tradition"?), esp. in the Book of Concord (1580)
     
• Calvinism (see also ch. 13 &15above)
  • emphasis on predestination leads to harsher/stricter form of religion in theology (TULIP) and practice ("Protestant Work Ethic")
    • T otal Depravity - human beings are so strongly enslaved by sin, they cannot save themselves, only God's grace can
    • U nconditional Election - people are saved (or condemned) simply because God decides, not because of their own merits
    • L imited Atonement - Jesus did not die on the cross to save all people, but only those who have been chosen for heaven
    • I rresistible Grace - those who are chosen by God will be saved; they simply cannot refuse or resist God's invitation
    • P erseverance of the Saints - those chosen by God will continue to believe; they can do nothing to lose their salvation
  • these beliefs effectively lead to growth of religious elitism and intolerance of religious differences
     
• Anglicanism (see also ch. 13 & 15 above)
  • early 16th Cent.: independence from Rome in Church governance, but continuation of "Catholic" theology & liturgy
  • late 16th Cent:: growing influence of "Protestant" (esp. Calvinist) theology and practices opposed to Catholicism
  • thereafter: a theological middle road between Roman Catholicism & Reformed Protestantism
  • worship influenced by and appeals to the upper-class aristocracy (lots of "high-church" pageantry, processions, vestments, music, incense, etc.)
     
• Methodism
  • in reaction to the theological intellectualism of Lutheranism, the doctrinal rigidity of Calvinism, and the social affluence of Anglicanism,
  • John Wesley (1703-91) and others began Methodism in England, which emphasizes personal, emotional, practical aspects of religion
  • George Whitefield (1714-70) and others spread Methodism in the American colonies, preaching anywhere (not just in churches)
  • became know for evangelical "revival meetings" held outdoors or in large tents; very popular among lower classes & working people
  • simple "Method" of attaining salvation, based on prayer and ethical living: 1) Do no harm; 2) Do good; 3) Obey God's precepts
     
• Protestantism in America - By State & Region: religious tolerance vs. intolerance
  • some people/places tolerated religious diversity, others did not, esp. when Puritans controlled England (1640's & 50's; see ch. 15 above)
  • Virginia - begun 1609 by Puritans; soon the upper classes became mostly Anglican, lower classes mostly Baptist or Methodist
  • Massachusetts - founded 1620 by Puritans; very intolerant of any religious differences; Salem witch trials (1692-1712)
    later split into various Calvinist-influenced groups: Congregationalists, Presbyterians, Baptists
  • Rhode Island - founded 1644 by Roger Williams (1604-83) specifically for religious toleration, incl. of Catholics & Jews
  • Pennsylvania - founded 1681 by William Penn (1644-1718), a pacifist Quaker who promoted religious freedom & diversity
  • New York - originally a Dutch colony ("New Amsterdam"), thus Dutch Reformed; later more British, thus Anglicans & other groups
     
• Protestantism in America: New Movements, New Churches, and New Religions
• First Great Awakening (1730's-40's) - religious "revival" influenced by Jonathan Edwards (1703-58) & other popular preachers
• Second Great Awakening (1801-40's) - led to the formation of many small, independent, "non-denominational" churches
• Disciples of Christ (1811) - wanted to unify all Protestants, but ironically ended up as another new denomination!
• Pacifist & Abolitionist Movements - Quakers, Shakers, Mennonites, etc.
• Slavery Debates - disagreements over slavery led to new Churches in the South (Southern Baptists, AME, AME Zion, etc.)
• Seventh-Day Adventists (1863) - an outgrowth of the apocalyptic "Millerite Movement"
• Church of the Nazarene (1908) & other "Holiness" Churches - reform movement among Methodists
• Fundamentalist Movement (1909) - reaction against liberal academic Protestant theology (BIOLA University, etc.)
• Assemblies of God (1914) & other "Pentecostal" Churches - emphasize the "gifts of the Holy Spirit"
   
• Mormons (1830) - Joseph Smith; Brigham Young; "Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter Day Saints"; Book of Mormon
• Christian Science (1879) - Mary Baker Eddy; "Church of Christ, Scientist"; Science & Health with Key to the Scriptures
• Jehovah's Witnesses (1931) - Charles T. Russell & Joseph F. Rutherford; Watchtower magazine
• Scientologists (1952) - L. Ron Hubbard; "Church of Scientology"; Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health
• and lots of other denominations and new religions, ever more, ever new!

Ch. 19 - The Age of Vatican II (AD 1890's - 1960's)

• Catholic Developments before the Second Vatican Council:
  • Pope Leo XIII (1878-1903) - promoted the rights of workers to unionize; see ch. 17 above
  • Pope Pius X (1903-1914) - fought against "Modernism" & "Communism"; reformed Canon Law, encouraged frequent communion, etc.
  • Pope Benedict XV (1914-1922) - advocated peace during & after World War I
  • Pope Pius XI (1922-1939) - struggled to protect the Church against the rising Fascists in Italy and Nazis in Germany
  • Pope Pius XII (1939-1958) - worked for rights of Christians (and Jews) during & after World War II; took many steps towards reform:
    • 1943: Divino Afflante Spiritu - Catholic Biblical scholarship may use historical critical methods (began "Biblical Movement")
    • 1947: Mediator Dei - lay people are encouraged to participate more fully in the Mass (started "Liturgical Movement")
    • 1950: Humani Generis - Catholic theologians may use results/methods of modern scholarship (encouraged "New Theology")
    • 1950: declares the dogma of the "Assumption of Mary," that Mary was taken "body & soul" into heaven at the end of her life
    • 1955: establishes an "optional memorial" on the Church's liturgical calendar for "St. Joseph the Worker" (May 1)
  • Pope John XXIII (1958-1963) - convoked the Second Vatican Council, presided over its preparation and its first session.
    • see Rausch, Ch. 1, for Pope John's intentions and goals for the Council
       
• Protestant Theological Developments in the Last Two Centuries:
  • Theological Emphasis shifts from intellectual/systematic doctrines to personal/experiential religion: Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834), Soren Kierkegaard (1813-55), Rudolf Otto (1869-1937)
  • Biblical Exegesis drops historical literalism and adopts historical-critical methods: Karl Barth (1886-1968), Rudolf Bultmann (1884-1976), etc.
  • Social Action moves beyond charitable service of the poor to systematic opposition against social injustice (racism, poverty, etc.)
  • Ecumenical Movement begins to bring many different Churches and denominations together (e.g. World Council of Churches)
     
• The Second Vatican Council (1962-65):
  • See Rausch, Ch. 1.

Ch. 20 - The Post-Vatican II Church (AD 1960's - today)

• Reform Movements and Ecumenical Councils:
  • In the long history of the Church, it has taken at least 100 years to see the full effects of any major "reform" movement (recall the eras of Constantine, Charlemagne, Gregory VII, Luther, etc.)
    • Today (2006) is only about 40 years since the end of Vatican II (1962-65); thus we are still in the middle of implementing the reforms.
  • There is always a variety of reactions to an Ecumenical Council; some people work to implement the conciliar decisions, others resist them and seek to return the Church to the way it was before.
  • Like a pendulum swinging back & forth, sometimes the progressives and sometimes the conservatives seem to have the upper hand.
  • There has been a "schism" after each of the 21 Ecumenical Councils; that is, one or more groups have disagreed with the majority decisions of each council and broken away from the rest of the Church.
    • Sometimes the "schismatic" groups were rather small, sometimes very large; some have faded away, others still exist today.
  • In contrast to some past councils, the vast majority of Catholics throughout the world have accepted the changes of Vatican II, although there is ongoing debate about how to implement them in practice.
    • There have been some "schismatic" groups, both on the extreme right and extreme left; but these groups have been relatively small.
       
• Various Reactions to Vatican II: (but be careful not to apply "labels" too rigidly!)
  • Far right: Ultra-conservative or "Tridentine" Catholics
    • The bishops at Vatican II were wrong; today's Church is headed in the wrong direction; everything in the Church (theology, liturgy, etc.) should have remained as it was defined by the Councils of Trent (1545-63) and Vatican I (1869-70).
    • The most extreme groups, called "sede vacantists" (lit. "the seat is empty") consider all Popes since John XXIII illegitimate.
  • Center right: Conservative or "Restorationist" Catholics
    • The decisions of Vatican II were good, but too many people have gone too far in changing too many things since then; we've "thrown the baby out with the bath water"; we need to restore the best parts of pre-Vatican II Catholicism; we should implement the documents of Vatican II exactly as written, but not go any further (unless and until another Ecumenical Council authorizes further changes).
  • Center left: Liberal or "Progressive" Catholics
    • The documents of Vatican II were good, but they have not been fully implemented yet; they were only the beginning of an ongoing process of reform; we should follow the "spirit" of Vatican II, not be bound by the "letter" of the documents as written; the Church must continue to adapt to address the needs of a rapidly changing world.
  • Far Left: Ultra-liberal or "Radical" Catholics
    • Vatican II did not go far enough; today's Church urgently needs much greater reforms in its leadership structures (e.g. married & women priests) and its teachings (e.g. sexual morality); if Rome doesn't authorize such changes, then individuals or local congregations should "push the envelope," do what is necessary, and thereby force the whole Church to change.
       
• External Relations: The Church & The World:
  • Social Justice: The Popes, national bishops' conferences, and local bishops continue to challenge Catholics (and all people) to work for human rights and against societal evils; all societies and cultures must be transformed by the message of the gospel; both communist socialism and free-market capitalism need to be subordinated to the needs and rights of all people.
  • Liberation Theology: The Church (esp. in Latin America) has a "preferential option for the poor" and advocates the need for structural changes to overcome unjust oppression; rich nations and individuals have a moral obligation to share their abundance with the world's poor.
     
• Internal Issues: Structures & Authority:
  • What are the roles of the Pope, national conferences of bishops, individual bishops, local pastors, and lay people in the leadership of the Church?
  • What are the roles of the Vatican, bishops, and individual theologians in developing and transmitting the Church's theological & ethical teachings?
  • What are the roles and responsibilities of all believers, esp. lay people, in the life and ministry, the leadership and teachings of the Church?
     
• The Spirit of Vatican II:
  • Bishops who worked in the "Roman Curia" (the Catholic Church's central administration) in the 1950's & 60's were mostly conservative and resistant to changes, but many other bishops from around the world worked hard to carry out Pope John XXIII's desires for reform at the Second Vatican Council.
  • Several Jesuit theologians strongly influenced the "spirit" of reform both before and during Vatican II, esp. Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (French, 1881-1955), Karl Rahner (German, 1904-84), esp. John Courtney Murray (American, 1905-67). Not just Jesuits, of course, but theologians from other religious orders and other countries were also very influential, but these are the three highlighted by Gilles (see Focus 37).
  • The spirit of ongoing reform in the Church has been carried forward in the last few decades not just by bishops, priests, and theologians, but more and more by lay people, both individuals and organized groups (see Gilles, Focus 38 & 39)

Ch. 21 - Visions and Boundaries (AD 1960's - today)

• The Popes since the Second Vatican Council:
  • Pope John XXIII (1958-63) - convoked the Second Vatican Council, presided over its preparation and its first session.
  • Pope Paul VI (1963-78) - continued & concluded Vatican II; began the implementation of its liturgical reforms & other decrees
  • Pope John Paul I (1978) - wanted to carry forward the work of his predecessors (combined name!), but died after only 33 days in office
  • Pope John Paul II (1978-2005; second-longest reigning, after Pope Pius IX) - from Poland; first non-Italian elected Pope in over four centuries
  • Pope Benedict XVI (2005-present) - elected April 19, 2005; had a strongly "conservative" reputation, but has been very "moderate" so far
     
• Visionaries & Boundary Keepers:
  • "Visionaries" or "Progressives" usually want to push forward with reforms, changes, and adaptations in our ever-changing world;
    • but they tend to think that anything old is bad, and everything new is good.
  • "Boundary Keepers" or "Traditionalists" want to preserve traditions, keep things as they have been passed down for generations;
    • but they tend to think that everything old is good, and anything new is bad.
  • But the BOTH/AND approach suggests that the Church needs both visionaries and boundary keepers; neither approach is absolute.
    • maintaining traditions AND reforming innovations are BOTH always necessary for any community to remain healthy.
  • St. Paul writes: "Do not despise the words of prophets, but test everything; hold fast to what is good; abstain from every form of evil." (1 Thess 5:20-22) How can we follow his admonition to "test everything," neither accepting or rejecting things just because they are new or old?
    • We constantly need to "test" old traditions, holding on to what is good, but letting go of what is no longer helpful or appropriate.
    • We also always need to "test" new innovations, welcoming what is good, but not falling for things that are merely fads or trends.
       
• Questions for Reflection:
• What are the most important issues facing the Catholic Church today? ...facing all Christians in all Churches and denominations?
• What good traditions of the past have Catholics and/or other Christians lost or neglected that should be recovered or restored?
• What necessary innovations have Catholids and/or other Christians resisted that need to be be embraced and adopted?
• Do I personally tend to preserve the old and reject whatever is new, or to neglect the old and embrace whatever is new?
• What can we learn from the 2000-year history of Christianity, so that we do not constantly repeat the same mistakes?
• What can we learn from other academic disciplines, so that Christianity can better respond to the needs of the modern world?
• How can Christianity integrate both the inner & outer dimensions of life, both faith & justice, both spirituality & theology?

Typographical Errors in People of God:

SUMMARY & REVIEW:

The Key Ecumenical Councils: (see Prof. Just's Ecumenical Councils webpage for their details & documents of each Council)

Other Key Dates, People, and Developments in the History of Christianity: (in addition to the Ecumenical Councils listed above)
(see also Gilles, Focus 40, pp. 197-98)

[Note: The dates, people, and events in the following three columns do NOT exactly line up with the information in the same lines of the other two columns;
but each of the three columns is itself in chronological order.]

Some Broader Synthesizing Questions:

1. How did Christianity begin? What were the roles of Jesus, Peter, Paul, and the other Apostles?
2. How did the Roman Empire view and treat Christians (both positively and negatively) in the first 300 years?
3. What were the effects of the Conversion of Constantine on the growth of Early Christianity?
4. How did the first four Ecumenical Councils affect the development of Christian Theology?
5. How did the Barbarian Invasions of the Western Roman Empire affect Christianity (in both West and East)?
6. What was the impact of Charlemagne (both politically and culturally) on medieval Christianity?
7. What factors (political & religious) caused the split between Eastern Orthodoxy and Western Catholicism?
8. What were the high points (and a few problems) of Western Christianity in the 12^th and 13^th centuries?
9. What were the major problems (and few good aspects) of Christianity in the 14^th and 15^th centuries?
10. When & how did the Protestant Reformation begin, spread, and lead to the formation of separate churches?
11. What was the Catholic reaction in the 16^th cent. (both negatively & positively) to Luther's Reforms?
12. What were the terrible consequences of the Reformation in Europe in the 17^th to 18^th centuries?
13. Describe the diversity and developments of Protestant Christianity in N. America (pre- and post-Revolution).
14. Describe the radical social changes of the 19^th century and the Catholic Church's reaction (esp. by Pope Pius IX).
15. What mid-20^th century reform movements led up to Vatican II, and what were the main results of this Council?

GLOSSARY: For definitions of many of the following terms, see the glossaries and indices in the back of our textbooks: Gilles (pp. 229-34, 235-51) or Rausch (pp. 246-61, 273-82). For other terms, check a good published dictionary, or online resources like dictionary.com, or see the Biblical Glossary on Prof. Just's website.

Some Early Christian "Heresies": Adoptionism, Arianism, Docetism, Donatism, Gnosticism, Marcionism, Modalism, Monarchianism, Monophysitism, Nestorianism, Pelagianism, Subordinationism

Some Later Christian Groups and Denominations: Albigensians, Anabaptists, Anglicans, Baptists, Calvinists, Catholics (Roman), Episcopalians, Jansenists, Lutherans, Methodists, Orthodox (Eastern, Greek, Russian, etc.), Presbyterians, Puritans, Reformed Christians, etc.

Some Major Religious Orders within Catholicism (and their founders): Benedictines (St. Benedict of Nursia), Cistercians (St. Bernard of Clairvaux), Dominicans (St. Dominic Guzman), Franciscans (St. Francis of Assisi), Jesuits (St. Ignatius of Loyola), Paulists (Isaac Hecker), Sisters of Charity (St. Elizabeth Ann Seton), etc.

Subfields of Theology: biblical theology, christology, ecclesiology, ecumenism (ecumenical dialogue), eschatology, feminist theology, inter-religious relations (interfaith dialogue), liberation theology, liturgy, missiology, moral theology/ethics, pneumatology, soteriology, social ethics, spirituality, systematic theology, trinitarian theology, etc.

Some Biblical Terms: apostle, Bible, canon, covenant, evangelist, Gospel, Hebrew Bible, noncanonical books, New Testament, Old Testament, Septuagint, Synoptic Gospels, Torah, Vulgate (see also Prof. Just's "Biblical Glossary")

Other Important Terms used in Gilles:
anti-Catholicism, apology, apostate, apostle/apostolic, ascetic/asceticism, Assumption (of Mary), baptism, barbarian, basilica, bishop/episcopal, bishops' conferences, Byzantium/Byzantine, cardinals, Carolingian Reform, catechesis/catechumen, cathedral, Catholic/catholic/catholicity, celibacy, Christ/Messiah, Christendom, Church/church (4 meanings), clergy & laity, Concordat, contemplation (prayer), conversion, council/conciliarism, creed/creedal formulas, crusades, curia, deacon/diaconal, Desert Fathers, diocese/diocesan, Doctor of the Church, doctrine/doctrinal, dogma/dogmatic, dualism, ekklesia/ecclesial, Ecumenical Councils, encyclical (papal), episkopos/episcopal/Episcopal, Eucharist, evangelical, Evangelist/evangelist, evangelize/evangelization, excommunication, feudalism (lords & vassals), filioque, friars/mendicants, fundamentalist, Gospel/gospel, grace, heaven/hell, heresy/heterodox, hierarchy, Holy Spirit, homoousios, hypostasis & hypostatic union, icons/iconoclasm, Immaculate Conception, imprimatur, incarnation, indulgences, infallibility, Inquisition/inquisitor, inspiration, justification (by faith), kerygma, lay investiture, lectio divina, liturgy, local church, logos, martyrs/confessors, Mass, meditation, modernist crisis, monastery/monasticism, monks/hermits, nationalism, nepotism, ontological, Orthodox/orthodox, pagan, papacy/papal, parish, patriarch, patristic fathers/writings, penance, piety/pious devotions, pontiff, Pope, predestination, presbyter/elder, priest, primacy (papal), purgatory, real presence, reconciliation, reform/reformation, relics, religious (brothers/sisters/orders), Renaissance, revelation/Revelation, Roman Curia, rule of faith, Sabbath, sacrament, saint/sanctity, salvation, schism, Scholasticism, secular, simony, (four) solas of Protestantism, Syllabus of Errors, synagogue, synod, theocracy, Theotokos, Thomism, traditions/Tradition, transubstantiation, Tridentine, T.U.L.I.P., "works of the Law" vs. "good works"

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